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A Rational Advocate
REASONED VIEWS ON ISSUES OF THE DAY

"The most formidable weapon against errors of any kind is reason"
Thomas Paine - 1776

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THE BASIS OF RATIONALITY
Information gathered in the present, combined with that obtained and processed over past periods of time, is reprocessed by our mind. If the past information is either not factual or erroneously perceived, judgments reached will not have validity. To achieve validity, reason based on factual information must be utilized as the basis for making reevaluations of past judgments and evaluations of all new judgments. This website's purpose is to advance this rationale.


REASONED VIEWS ON TIMELY ISSUES
ARTICLE LIBRARY
WORLD OF ECONOMICS EDUCATION IN AMERICA POLITICAL WORLD & UNIVERSE SOCIAL & MORAL

FEATURED ARTICLES

Secularism is a belief and thus a form of religion
By Ben Cerruti
 
In terms of objective consideration it surely can be agreed that secular belief and religious belief are both beliefs. If this is the case it would rationally follow that religious belief should be given an accordant status as secular belief in the application of government laws.
 
Relating this to our public educations system, this would mean that educators have no right to treat religious any different than non-religious expression. As an example, in the recitation of the pledge of allegiance students have the right to have the opportunity to speak the words "under God" should they wish to do so. Of course, other students not wishing to speak those wordsl have that right as well. This of course also would apply to graduation ceremonies where both secular and religious related presentations should be made.
 
Rather than divide our citizenry by pitting secular vs religious, why not bring them together by allowing all to participate in Government related activities regardless of their personal beliefs. There is nothing in ou nation's Constitution that prohibits this from happening. Let's get on with it.

Redistribution of Income
By Ben Cerruti

We have been witnesses to a continuing use of class warfare by those in government, abetted by the media and an assortment of special interest groups and individuals. In this essay we will consider the methods they use to establish the terms relating to redistribution of income.

Utilizing effective divisive tactics they initially obfuscate their intentions by using the term "wealth" in place of "income" when proposing material changes in the income tax code. Taxing income derived from accumulated wealth does not alter that wealth. They next establish three main category of classes; rich, middle class and poor. If one were to pay close attention, he or she would find that they rather conveniently alter the dividing lines to suit the subject for which they are advocates.
 
It should be apparent that attempting to establish classes by simplistic definition is ludicrous.  Is a person earning $1,000,000 a year in his twenties as rich as one earning the same amount in his or her sixties?  The person in their sixties may have had to spend many years working up from under six figure annual income to reach this income level and the person in their twenties may find that in later years his or her income may fall to sub six figure level.  A poor person at a young age may become affluent with time and an affluent person may suffer financial reverses that will throw him or her into what is presently considered the poor class. 
 
There are many other factors, such as age, education, marital status, number of dependents, physical capability, race, national prosperity, war or national emergency, that affects the financial status of any person at any given time during their lifetime.

It should be apparent the because of these factors, which for want of a better name we can call dynamic natural demographics, any fair and effective redistribution of income is impossible.  The fact is that the use of class to define favors or penalties those in government may dispense is divisive and counter productive.  It pits citizen against citizen and serves to only benefit those in government utilizing these tactics.

It would rationally appear more productive for government if their actions would be directed towards supporting the movement of those at the lower end of the income scale, at any given time, up into higher levels of income.  How obvious it should be that this result can be effected by more reliance on the overall growth of our national private sector wealth, wherein there is then more to share for every citizen; this rather than limiting growth by draining excessive wealth from the private sector that is then used in non-productive fashions. 

Those in government that control these actions that interfere with the manufacturing of private sector wealth, that benefit all in the private sector, do so in the guise of “fairness”.  The disingenuous use of this word is more clearly understood when one understands that in this process a substantial portion of the private sector wealth taken by those in government is dispensed to those respective special interests to which favors are owed.  This very fact should also dispel that mistaken feeling by some that Government can create private sector wealth better than the private sector itself.

The obvious sometimes has to be explained.  It is rather difficult to understand why people whom one would believe are well educated, especially those in the media, would not understand some of the following truths. People who accumulate excess income, unless they bury it or put it under their mattress, must place it back in circulation.  They do this either by putting it in the bank, purchasing  assets such as real estate, stocks and bonds, or by investing in assets and personnel for their own business.  Just the fact that the excess income is in circulation allows for its use by the rest of the private sector to promote increased business, create jobs and overall increased financial wealth. 

If this excess income is confiscated through taxes it is not allowed to work to effect this increased private sector prosperity.  Again, to explain the obvious, this counter productive action by those in government is only taken to benefit their own personal position and agenda since, in factual truth, it does not provide the beneficial advantage to those in the private sector, that it professes.  It is necessary to understand that the government bureaucracy does not produce any revenue, it is supported solely by the taxes it collects.  It is by its nature inefficient and self serving since those employed in it benefit personally in income and career longevity  by its existence and growth.

I hope there are those who read these words who still have hope and faith that there are among us leaders, new or old,  that will arise to condemn the use of class warfare by those in government, and in the political arena, to serve their own rather than the interests of the citizens of this country which they disingenuously portray they do.


Deficit Spending and the Fed are to blame
By Ben Cerruti
 

Unfortunately that which has actually caused our present economic crisis is not even being given lip service by anyone. It is hoped that which is contained herein will help fill that void for the reader..

 

As every family knows, when it spends more than it earns it can only make up the difference by borrowing or increasing income. It is the same for the government except they also have the power to essentially print money. Let's look at how government appears to get away with running continuing deficits while any of us who did the same thing would eventually be forced into bankruptcy.

 

When the government spends more money than it receives, the Treasury Department has the power to borrow the difference by offering bonds for sale at market interest rates. Ready buyers of these bonds are those foreign countries who sell more of their products and services to U.S. entities then is purchased from them. The dollar difference (trade deficit) must eventually return to the U.S. and is predominantly used to buy this debt.

 

When the amount of funds required to satisfy the deficit exceed the amount of trade deficit dollars available to buy our bonds, the Federal Reserve Bank (FED) buys the bonds. The FED presently owns around 40% of the national debt and this means the government essentially owns this portion of its own debt. They buy these bonds by crediting the attendant purchase amount to the bank accounts of the dealers that sell them. Since banks are required to only maintain 10% of their deposits in reserve they can lend 10 times that amount. This 10 to 1 leverage is then further increased when money is moved by transactions to other banks.

 

Why should this be of concern? Because this created money is just like any other commodity and its purchasing power decreases when the amount of it available increases . When there is more supply than demand of a commodity the value of that commodity decreases.. Hence, the devaluation of the dollar and resultant eventual inflation. Although not yet present it will surely occur if and when the economy recovers. 

 

Our present economic condition has been brewing for many years. Its beginning can be traced back to what ensued after it was agreed by 29 nations at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944 that the U.S. would guarantee to sell gold at $35 an ounce effectively pegging the value of world currencies to the U.S. dollar. Subsequent continued deficit spending that exacerbated in the 1960's coupled with an increasing trade deficit resulted in marked devaluation of the dollar relative to gold. This led to the issuance of what were called “special drawing rights (sdr's)”, that were in essence iou's, to offset the difference between the market price of gold and $35 an oz.

 

In 1971 the continuing increased national debt and ensuing pressure from speculators and central banks forced President Nixon to abandon the gold standard. Thus the dollar became a fiat currency whose value was to float in relation to other world currencies. Without the restraint of the gold standard, deficit spending accelerated and rose from under $500 Billion in 1971 to $9 Trillion in 2008. During this period the FED continued to manipulate the money supply resulting in an inordinate increase in the price of homes followed by a marked decrease in these prices circa 1985 to 1998.. What then transpired brought us to our present economic predicament described as follows..

Letter to a Student
By Ben Cerruti
 
Dear xxxxx: Relating to your recent comments concerning the effect of government directed tax cuts vs. spending on the economy. I have material to present to you in this regard but I would like to preface that with the following.
 
As I mentioned yesterday my daughter has gone through her first year pursuing her MBA. She just finished a course in Macroeconomics and passed on to me her textbook by N. Gregory Mankiw, a Professor of Economics at Harvard. I told her that this textbook would never have been written if the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 had never been passed since there would have been no basis or need for it. My point being that government itself has created most of the economic problems that it subsequently has attempted to correct. In fact, most of the economists of the 20th Century would have had to turn to other professions in order to survive.
 
I also believe that people are too ready to believe those academic & government elitists just because they carry advanced degrees and aura's of importance. In fact, economics in its essence is a simple subject and can easily be related to ones own income and expenditures. However, the reality is that the Federal Reserve System and what has evolved from it is presently alive and kicking albeit to its possible own demise. The following quotations from noted economists clearly provide factual evidence that lower taxes are more likely to promote increased GDP than increased government spending.
 
Milron Friedman - Along with Anna Schwartz, extensive empirical research was done covering many decades and presented in their book "Theory of the Consumption Function". "The central theme of the book is embarrassingly obvious. People do not decide how much to spend on consumption each day or week or year by how much they receive in income on that day or week or year but on some longer term expectation of the amount that they will have available to spend. Similarly, the flow of consumption services that people enjoy during any day or week or year does not depend on how much they spend that day or week or year but on the accumulated stock of goods providing services (such as owned home, car, refrigerators, etc)." Hence, the assumption is that for income received, whatever form it takes, it cannot be effective unless it is on a considered relatively permanent basis. This stands to reason for businesses who are more likely to plan for growth of their company by purchases of goods and hiring of people when they know that they will be able to retain funds that they would otherwise have to pay in taxes.
 
John Maynard Keynes - "Nor shall the argument seem strange, that taxation would be so high as to defeat its object and that given sufficient time to gather the fruits, a reduction of taxation will run a better chance than an increase of balancing the budget. To take the opposite view today is to resemble a manufacturer who, running at a loss, decides to raise his price. And when his declining sales increase the loss, wrapping himself in the rectitude of plain arithmetic, decides that prudence requires him to raise the price still more. And who, when at last his account is balanced when naught on both sides is still found righteously declares that it would have been the act of a gamble to reduce the price when you were already making a loss."
 
Professor Mankiw - "When John F. Kennedy became President.....in 1961, he brought to Washington some....bright young economists...to work on his Council of Economic Advisors........One of the council's first proposals to expand national income by reducing taxes. This eventually led to a substantial cut in personal and corporate income taxes in 1964....When a reporter asked Kennedy why he advocated a tax cut, Kennedy replied, 'To stimulate the economy. Don't you remember your Economics 101?' As...was predicted, the passage of the tax cut was followed by an economic boom. Growth in real GDP was 5.3% in 1964 and 6.0% in 1965. The unemployment rate fell from 5.7% in 1964 to 4.5% in 1965."
 
I am certain that at your stage of education the foregoing will simply act to stimulate your interest in learning more about the subject matter. At my stage in life I feel that I have been stimulated to learn so much that I find those who have provided me the material from which to learn are not that much smarter than I am - and - in some respects may be considered to have been employed in a profession that has possibly created more harm than good. 

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How to Cure Health Care
By Milton Friedman
The United States spends a mind-boggling percentage of its GDP on a health care system that virtually everyone agrees is a disaster. Is there any way out of this mess? There is-and Milton Friedman has found it.

Since the end of World War II, the provision of medical care in the United States and other advanced countries has displayed three major features: first, rapid advances in the science of medicine; second, large increases in spending, both in terms of inflation-adjusted dollars per person and the fraction of national income spent on medical care; and third, rising dissatisfaction with the delivery of medical care, on the part of both consumers of medical care and physicians and other suppliers of medical care.

Rapid technological advances have occurred repeatedly since the Industrial Revolution-in agriculture, steam engines, railroads, telephones, electricity, automobiles, radio, television, and, most recently, computers and telecommunication. The other two features seem unique to medicine. It is true that spending initially increased after nonmedical technical advances, but the fraction of national income spent did not increase dramatically after the initial phase of widespread acceptance. On the contrary, technological development lowered cost, so that the fraction of national income spent on food, transportation, communication, and much more has gone down, releasing resources to produce new products or services. Similarly, there seems no counterpart in these other areas to the rising dissatisfaction with the delivery of medical care.

These developments in medicine have been worldwide. By their very nature, scientific advances know no geographic boundaries. Data on spending are readily available for 29 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. In every one, medical spending has gone up significantly both in inflation-adjusted dollars per person and as a fraction of national income. In 1997, the United States spent 14 percent of gross domestic product on medical care, the highest of any OECD country. Germany was a distant second at 11 percent; Turkey was the lowest at 4 percent.

A key difference between medical care and the other technological revolutions is the role of government. In other technological revolutions, the initiative, financing, production, and distribution were primarily private, though government sometimes played a supporting or regulatory role. In medical care, government has come to play a leading role in financing, producing, and delivering medical service. Direct government spending on health care exceeds 75 percent of total health spending for 15 OECD countries. The United States is next to the lowest of the 29 countries, at 46 percent. In addition, some governments indirectly subsidize medical care through favorable tax treatment. For the United States, such subsidization raises the fraction of health spending financed directly or indirectly by government to more than 50 percent.

What are countries getting for the money they are spending on medical care? What is the relation between input and output? Spending on medical care provides a reasonably good measure of input, but, unfortunately, there is no remotely satisfactory objective measure of output.

Ultimately, the purpose of this article is to examine the situation in the United States. I have mentioned the data on the OECD countries primarily to document the two (related?) respects in which the United States is exceptional: we spend a higher percentage of national income on medical care (and more per capita) than any other OECD country, and our government finances a smaller fraction of that spending than all countries except Korea.
MORE

Universal Health Care
By Thomas Sowell  (TownHall.com)
Those of us who are getting on in years can remember a time when most people had no health insurance, when we simply paid the doctors or the pharmacies and went on our way, without giving it a second thought. I have especially painful memories of having a hospital bill of $50 for the treatment of a baseball injury back in 1949. You have no idea how big $50 was for me at that time. It was the most money that I had ever paid for anything. But the bill got paid off, a few dollars at a time, over a period of months. When and why did health insurance, paid by third parties, become widespread in the American economy? Like so many things that the government does, third-party health insurance grew out of problems created by previous government policies.....
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WORLD ISSUES
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A View From the Eye of the Storm
Talk by Israeli scientist, Haim Harari (honoraria and bio), at a meeting of the International Advisory Board of a large  multinational corporation, April, 2004.
 
As you know, I usually provide the scientific and technological "entertainment" in our meetings, but, on this occasion, our Chairman suggested that I present my own personal view on events in the part of the world from which I come. I have never been and I will never be a Government official and I have no privileged information. My perspective is entirely based on what I see, on what I read and on the fact that my family has lived in this region for almost 200 years. You may regard my views as those of the proverbial taxi driver, which you are supposed to question, when you visit a country....

A Dialog On Islamic Beliefs
This website has had posted a poll question relating to Islamic beliefs and recently also posted an essay by 'A Rational Advocate' whose content was related to that subject matter. The following is an email dialog that developed from the initial comments made by a visitor whom shall be called Ms X.  The commentary provides an interesting insight to the rationale of some non-Muslims relating to the subject matter....

Madrassas and American Public Schools
By Ben Cerruti
Madrassas, Islamic Schools, and American Public Schools do have a similarity.  This similarity lies in the fact that they both graduate students that have been indocrinated with a unilateral social ideology.  Some may argue that Madrassas deal with religion but, in fact, the tenets of the Koran that are taught include much involving the manner in which the society must function....

Will Al Qaeda Terrorism Go Away By Itself?
By Ben Cerruti
Evidently there are some in the Western World that think the answer to this question is yes.  In the U.S.A. we find among them many candidates vying to be the Democratic candidate for President, acting as if we should have continued passively after 9/11 and our military activity in Afghanistan, waiting for the next attack by the terrorists on some target within our 50 states.  In Britain, where our President has visited recently, they attack the actions of Tony Blair and the Coalition of the Willing in their effort to bring democracy to Iraq.  Their actions convey the feeling that they seem to be on the side of the terrorists and thus to support the longevity of terrorism.....

This is a World War
By Ben Cerruti
Many pundits, politicians, members of the press, and others in our society, maintain the view that the armed conflicts existing around the globe are not necessarily connected. However, this view does not hold up when the obvious facts emerge to show that there is a common thread that exists to tie them together. This thread is terrorism.....

WIN THE BATTLE - LOSE THE WAR
By Ben Cerruti
It is apparent that there is confusion in the mind of many people. It lies in the view that they think we have engaged in a war in Iraq that is winding up with the U.S. as winners. The events that have transpired involving mid-east terrorists over the last 20 plus years, culminating with the events on 9/11/2001, can only lead any rational person to the conclusion that our war is against terrorism and we are far from winners of that war yet......

TRUMAN WAS WRONG
By Ben Cerruti
What with all the hoopla over the North Koreans recent nuclear saber rattling one would think that some mention would be made of what got us here. We hear nothing about the Presidential decision that led to the permanent separation of Korea into two states. Fifty two years ago a confrontation between President Truman and General Douglas MacArthur, over far east policy leading to this decision, dominated the news. It resulted in the removal of MacArthur from his position as Commander of the U.N. armed forces then fighting the North Koreans.....

A view appears to exist that America is more dependent on the receipt of mideast oil than the supplier is dependent on the revenue from its sale. As a result we find contentious argument both inside and outside of government as to the need and methods for making our economy less dependent on foreign oil....

The following burning question, I would think, should rationally enter the minds of the greater majority of civilized people in this country and world. Why would educated young Muslims take the lives of innocent victims along with their own in the conduct of suicidal missions in support of a cause? It would appear contrary to any religious belief, including that of Islam.....

This morning I posed myself the following questions. (1) Why can’t the causes behind the acts of terrorism on our country dating back a decade be determined by a rational analysis? (2) Why can’t we wean ourselves away from dependence on the resources of the region of the world that threatens us?......


POLITICAL ISSUES
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Why do so many seemingly good people with a liberal bent become pent up with rage when they read or hear the word "Christian" in a conservative context.  In their diatribe they invariably relate the word to their villainous foe "the religious right", or as it is sometimes called, "the Christian right".  Regardless of the possible merits to be found in the presented material, they lose rationality when they see the word "Christian" even though it may only be referencing the most positive moral virtues and perspective.....

The creator’s of our Constitution were so concerned that the Federal Government would usurp the powers of State Government that they included provisions to lessen that possibility.  However, time has taken its toll on these provisions and the politics they had hoped to minimize has reared its ugly head in the Supreme Court to further erode the powers of State Government.....

VOTING ON PRINCIPLE
By Ben Cerruti
In general elections should a person vote for a candidate or his party affiliation? There are various reasonable arguments that can be proposed to justify voting in either manner. Perhaps it would be well to look at the motivation for voting.......

President Bush had threatened a veto if the Homeland Security Act did not include provisions that would allow the new department flexibility in dealing with employees.  Such provisions to include the right to waive collective bargaining rules and to eliminate the lengthy and difficult procedures to move or terminate federal employees now existing in federal law.  With difficulty, and some compromise with members of Congress, the Act was finally enacted with provisions that somewhat minimzed the ability for public employee unions to adversely affect homeland security........

A visitor to this web site recently had comments to make about the essay “Are You Conservative or Liberal?” written by “A Rational Advocate“. As a result, an interesting dialog developed that should be of possible interest to other visitors and it follows.....

The answer to this question, as used in political connotation, requires an understanding of the respective terms. This process involves the semantics of their use in discourse. It stands to reason that a mutual understanding of the words and terms when utilized in discussions is required for communication between the parties involved to convey true meaning to the discourse.......


We have been witness to a continuing use of class warfare by those in government, abetted by the media and an assortment of special interest groups and individuals.  In this essay we will consider the methods they use to establish definitions as it relates to the redistribution of income......


What are the reasons for contributors to provide money to candidates for public office? Common sense tells us that they are as follows:
1. Ideological, meaning to promote the ideals in which the contributor believes.
2. Self-seeking, meaning to gain from the candidate commitment to actions that will be economically beneficial to the contributor.....

There are those that claim that elections are the most effective method of holding legislators accountable for their actions.  In a truly democratic system this might be possible but unfortunately ours is not such a system as experience tells us....

There is a great misuse of meanings of certain words and phrases by many in our society, with the greatest abusers being many media and political persona and social opportunists (self-serving individuals and groups).  It is especially disingenuous when this practice takes place in the categorization of people for the purpose of pitting one category against the other....



SOCIAL ISSUES
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BO's speech at Notre Dame completely ignored the role of the Doctor in abortions, as did Notre Dame's administration

BO's speech to the 2009 Notre Dame graduating class amplified the sounds of those on both the pro-life and pro-choice sides of the abortion issue. No one seems to view this issue as having what can be viewed as another position based on who are those who are committing the abortions. The Doctor performing the act is getting away with what some would call murder. If reason was used it could be held that the expectant mother is asking someone to commit this act and the very acceptance of a Doctor to do so could be considered an illegal act under the Constitution. Hence if it is the Doctor who is committing an illegal act that should be prosecutable.
 
The following article I wrote a few years ago addresses the personal responsibility issue and the fact that the expectant mother does have a choice but that it does not include a third person to commit the act. It would not mean that a Doctor should not be able to administer to her after she has opted to find a way to induce the abortion herself, including possibly taking a pill prescribed by a Doctor. The point being morally and ethically shouldn't she be responsible for performing  the physical action of inducing the abortion? Having to make such a decision in which she is physically initiating the act makes it more likely that she would more seriously examine her options. Those being to keep  the child or to offer it up for adoption. Being more personally responsible could cause those thinking of practicing unprotected sex to think twice about it and possibly consider a degree of abstinence. Of greater possible importance would be that a third person, the  Doctor, would not be taking a life and violating moral and ethical tenets..
 
In regard to BO's position on stem cell research, he has authorized use of our tax dollars similar to those provided for foreign abortion clinics, to fund embryonic stem cell research. The government should not be in the business of funding these programs on which our society is divided. However, the private sector is free to spend their research dollars as they wish. In fact, positive results of adult stem cell research has recently shown that that embryo's need not be destroyed at all.
* OREGON, THE HIPPOCRATIC OATH,
EUTHANASIA AND ABORTION

By Ben Cerruti
Headlines a few years ago were cognizant U.S. District Judge's confirmation of the Oregon voter-approved law allowing doctors to assist in the death of terminally ill patients. I wonder if this Judge was aware of the Hippocratic Oath. The Hippocratic Oath, of course, is what historically was taken by those entering the medical profession upon graduation from medical school........

A visitor to this web site recently had comments to make about the essay "Homosexuality Is Not Normal" written by “A Rational Advocate“. As a result, an interesting dialog developed that should be of possible interest to other visitors and it follows...

Why do homosexual couples who wish to establish a union between themselves insist on having the government allow them to be endowed with the same marriage title provided to heterosexual couples? Why are they not satisfied with being provided the same legal provisions in the form of a title called "civil union"? A single answer to both questions is obvious. They want society to consider their relationship normal. The reason the government should not concede to their demands is also obvious. Their relationship is not normal because man and woman were put on this earth with complementary sex organs meant to procreate the species....

Another visitor to this website recently had comments to make about the essay  "Homosexuality Is Not Normal"  written by “A Rational Advocate“. As a result, the following dialog developed between the visitor, who is given the name Mr. H, and A Rational Advocate (ARA)....

WHY GO TO MARS
By Ben Cerruti
The Space program had become another humdrum government program to the average American before the tragic loss of Columbia. It took that event to awaken us to think about this program and the reason for its existence at this point in time......

The 4th Constitutional Amendment states:
"The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects,against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized" - Recently Representative Howard Berman, Democrat from California, introduced HR5211,a bill to indemnify holders of copyrights on files who use technological means to enter one's Computer and disable the use of such files.......

Altruism is defined as regard for and concern for the welfare of others. An Altruist is defined as one who adheres to the practice of Altruism. A problem exists in our society in the interpretation of actions versus intentions. The  premise I take here is that a person cannot perform an altruistic act that does not fulfill a personal intent to commit it. Thus the definition of Altruism contradicts itself.

DO WE WANT THIS BRAVE NEW WORLD?
By Ben Cerruti
Published in 1932, a novel by Aldous Huxley, entitled “A Brave New World”, described a fantasized society of the far future which has, as time progresses, becomes less a fantasy and more a possibility. This society controlled by an authoritarian centralized government practices mass breeding of humans in laboratories, called hatcheries, replacing normal maternal reproduction......

LOVE AND SEX
By Ben Cerruti
Love is a most misused word.  Saying things like “I Love Cookies” or  “I Love It” or “I Love to Ski”, when the word that should be used is “like”, is innocent enough....However, the word love also has another common misuse, with which we are also all familiar, but this misuse sometimes gives the user of the term a lot of grief....

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